1. *Causes:*
- Excessive or inappropriate use of antibiotics in humans, animals, and agriculture.
- Spread of resistant bacteria through agricultural runoff, wastewater, and industrial effluents.
2. *Hotspots:*
- Hospitals and clinics, where resistant bacteria like MRSA and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa can thrive.
*Mechanisms of Resistance:*
1. *Genetic Mutations:* Spontaneous mutations in bacterial DNA can lead to resistance.
2. *Gene Transfer:* Bacteria can acquire resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms.
3. *Efflux Pumps:* Bacteria can develop or upregulate efflux pumps that expel antibiotics from the cell.
4. *Enzymatic Degradation:* Bacteria can produce enzymes that break down antibiotics, rendering them ineffective.
*Examples:*
1. *β-lactamases:* Enzymes produced by bacteria like Escherichia coli that inactivate β-lactam antibiotics like penicillin..
*Impact of Antibiotic Resistance:*
1. *Increased morbidity and mortality:* Resistant infections are harder to treat, leading to more severe illnesses and increased deaths.
2. *Economic burden:* Longer hospital stays, more intensive care, and expensive drugs increase healthcare costs and reduce productivity.
3. *Global spread:* Resistant bacteria and genes can spread across borders through travel, trade, and movement of people and goods.
4. *Impact on food production and safety:* Antibiotic use in livestock and crops contributes to resistance in animal and plant pathogens, reducing effectiveness of antibiotics in treating animal diseases.
5.Public health concern:* Antibiotic resistance is a significant public health concern, requiring careful management and prevention strategies.
*Consequences:*
1. *Prolonged illnesses:* Resistant infections can lead to longer and more severe illnesses.
2. *Increased healthcare costs:* Resistant infections require more intensive care and expensive treatments.
3. *Reduced effectiveness:* Antibiotics may become less effective against resistant bacteria, making treatment more challenging.
4. *Global health concern:* Antibiotic resistance is a significant global health concern, requiring coordinated efforts to prevent and control its spread.
0 Comments